What Contaminants Are Regulated Under The Clean Air Act

United states of america federal law to control air pollution

Make clean Air Human activity

Long title	An Act to ameliorate, strengthen, and accelerate programs for the prevention and abatement of air pollution, as amended.
Acronyms (colloquial)	CAA
Codification
U.s.C. sections created	42 United statesC. ch. 85 (§§ 7401-7671q)
Major amendments
Clean Air Act of 1963 (77 Stat. 392, Pub.Fifty. 88–206) Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Command Human action of 1965 (79 Stat. 992, Pub.L. 89–272) Air Quality Deed of 1967 (81 Stat. 485, Pub.50. 90–148) Clean Air Amendments of 1970 (84 Stat. 1676, Pub.L. 91–604) Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 (91 Stat. 685, Pub.Fifty. 95–95) Make clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (104 Stat. 2468, Pub.50. 101–549)
United States Supreme Court cases
Union Elec. Co. 5. EPA, 427 U.Due south. 246 (1976) Chevron v. NRDC, 467 U.Southward. 837 (1984) Whitman v. Am. Trucking Ass'ns, 531 U.South. 457 (2001) Engineer Manufacturers Association v. Due south Coast Air Quality Management Commune, 541 U.S. 246 (2004) Massachusetts 5. EPA, 549 U.S. 497 (2007) Environmental Defense 5. Knuckles Energy Corp., 549 U.Southward. 561 (2007) American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut, 564 U.S. 410 (2011) EPA five. EME Homer Metropolis Generation, L. P., 572 U.South. 489 (2014) Utility Air Regulatory Group v. Ecology Protection Bureau, 573 U.South. 302 (2014) Michigan 5. EPA, No. 14-46, 576 U.South. ___ (2015) HollyFrontier Cheyenne Refining, LLC 5. Renewable Fuels Assn., No. 20-472, 594 U.S. ___ (2021) West Virginia v. EPA (pending)

The Clean Air Act (CAA) is the United States' master federal air quality law, intended to reduce and control air pollution nationwide. Initially enacted in 1963 and amended many times since, it is i of the United States' showtime and virtually influential modern environmental laws.

As with many other major U.Southward. federal environmental statutes, the Clean Air Act is administered by the U.S. Ecology Protection Agency (EPA), in coordination with state, local, and tribal governments.^{[1] : 2–3} EPA develops extensive administrative regulations to behave out the law's mandates. The associated regulatory programs are often technical and complex. Among the most important, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards program sets standards for concentrations of certain pollutants in outdoor air; the National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants program sets standards for emissions of particular hazardous pollutants from specific sources. Other programs create requirements for vehicle fuels, industrial facilities, and other technologies and activities that touch on air quality. Newer programs tackle specific problems, including acid rain, ozone layer protection, and climate change.

Although its exact benefits depend on what is counted, the Make clean Air Act has substantially reduced air pollution and improved US air quality—benefits which EPA credits with saving trillions of dollars and many thousands of lives each year.

Regulatory programs [edit]

In the United states of america, the "Clean Air Act" typically refers to the codified statute at 42 U.S.C. ch. 85. That statute is the product of multiple acts of Congress, one of which—the 1963 act—was actually titled the Clean Air Act, and another of which—the 1970 act—is most often referred to every bit such. In the U.S. Code, the statute itself is divided into subchapters, and the section numbers are not clearly related to the subchapters. However in the bills that created the police force, the major divisions are called "Titles", and the police force's sections are numbered co-ordinate to the title (e.g., Title II begins with Department 201).^[2] In practice, EPA, courts, and attorneys oftentimes use the latter numbering scheme.

Although many parts of the statute are quite detailed, others gear up out simply the full general outlines of the law's regulatory programs, and exit many fundamental terms undefined. Responsible agencies, primarily EPA, have therefore adult administrative regulations to conduct out Congress's instructions. EPA's proposed and final regulations are published in the Federal Register, often with lengthy background histories. The existing CAA regulations are codified at forty C.F.R. Subchapter C, Parts 50–98.^[3] These Parts more often represent to the Clean Air Deed's major regulatory programs.

Today, the following are major regulatory programs under the Clean Air Act.

National Ambience Air Quality Standards [edit]

The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) govern how much ground-level ozone (O₃), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate thing (PM_x, PM_ii.5), lead (Atomic number 82), sulfur dioxide (And then₂), and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) are allowed in the outdoor air.^[4] The NAAQS set the acceptable levels of certain air pollutants in the ambience air in the United States. Prior to 1965, there was no national plan for developing ambient air quality standards, and prior to 1970 the federal regime did not have primary responsibility for developing them. The 1970 CAA amendments required EPA to determine which air pollutants posed the greatest threat to public health and welfare and promulgate NAAQS and air quality criteria for them. The wellness-based standards were chosen "primary" NAAQS, while standards set to protect public welfare other than health (east.g., agricultural values) were chosen "secondary" NAAQS. In 1971, EPA promulgated regulations for sulfur oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen dioxide (36 FR 22384). Initially, EPA did not listing lead every bit a criteria pollutant, controlling it through mobile source regime, but it was required to practice so after successful litigation by Natural Resources Defense force Council (NRDC) in 1976 (43 FR 46258). The 1977 CAA Amendments created a process for regular review of the NAAQS list, and created a permanent contained scientific review committee to provide technical input on the NAAQS to EPA.^[5] EPA added regulations for PM2.5 in 1997 (62 FR 38652), and updates the NAAQS from fourth dimension to fourth dimension based on emerging ecology and wellness science.

National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants [edit]

The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs) govern how much of 187 toxic air pollutants are immune to be emitted from industrial facilities and other sources.^[6] Under the CAA, hazardous air pollutants (HAPs, or air toxics) are air pollutants other than those for which NAAQS exist, which threaten human health and welfare. The NESHAPs are the standards used for controlling, reducing, and eliminating HAPs emissions from stationary sources such as industrial facilities. The 1970 CAA required EPA to develop a list of HAPs, and then develop national emissions standards for each of them. The original NESHAPs were health-based standards. The 1990 CAA Amendments (Pub.Fifty. 101–549 Championship 3) codified EPA's list, and required cosmos of technology-based standards according to "maximum achievable control engineering" (MACT). Over the years, EPA has issued dozens of NESHAP regulations, which accept developed NESHAPs by pollutant, by manufacture source category, and by industrial process. There are as well NESHAPs for mobile sources (transportation), although these are primarily handled under the mobile source government.^[seven] The 1990 amendments (adding CAA § 112(d-f)) too created a process by which EPA was required to review and update its NESHAPs every eight years, and identify any risks remaining after application of MACT, and develop additional rules necessary to protect public wellness.^[eight]

New Source Performance Standards [edit]

The New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) are rules for the equipment required to be installed in new and modified industrial facilities, and the rules for determining whether a facility is "new".^[9] The 1970 CAA required EPA to develop standards for newly-constructed and modified stationary sources (industrial facilities) using the "best arrangement of emission reduction which (taking into account the toll of achieving such reduction) the [EPA] determines has been fairly demonstrated." EPA issued its first NSPS regulation the next twelvemonth, covering steam generators, incinerators, Portland cement plants, and nitric and sulfuric acid plants (36 FR 24876). Since so, EPA has issued dozens of NSPS regulations, primarily by source category. The requirements promote industrywide adoption of bachelor pollution control technologies. Notwithstanding, because these standards apply only to new and modified sources, they promote extending the lifetimes of pre-existing facilities. In the 1977 CAA Amendments, Congress required EPA to bear a "new source review" process (twoscore CFR 52, subpart I) to make up one's mind whether maintenance and other activities rises to the level of modification requiring application of NSPS.^[10]

Acid Rain Programme [edit]

The Acid Rain Program (ARP) is an emissions trading program for power plants to control the pollutants that crusade acid pelting.^[eleven] The 1990 CAA Amendments created a new title to address the issue of acid rain, and particularly nitrogen oxides (NO_x) and sulfur dioxide (Then₂) emissions from electric power plants powered past fossil fuels, and other industrial sources. The Acid Rain Program was the starting time emissions trading program in the Usa, setting a cap on full emissions that was reduced over time by manner of traded emissions credits, rather than directly controls on emissions. The program evolved in two stages: the beginning stage required more than 100 electric generating facilities larger than 100 megawatts to come across a three.5 million ton SO₂ emission reduction by January 1995. The second stage gave facilities larger than 75 megawatts a January 2000 deadline. The program has achieved all of its statutory goals.^[12]

Ozone layer protection [edit]

The CAA ozone program is a technology transition program intended to phase out the utilize of chemicals that harm the ozone layer.^[13] Consequent with the U.s.a. commitments in the Montreal Protocol, CAA Title VI, added by the 1990 CAA Amendments, mandated regulations regarding the use and product of chemicals that impairment Earth's stratospheric ozone layer. Under Title 6, EPA runs programs to stage out ozone-destroying substances, track their import and export, determine exemptions for their continued utilise, and ascertain practices for destroying them, maintaining and servicing equipment that uses them, and identifying new alternatives to those still in use.

Mobile source programs [edit]

Rules for pollutants emitted from internal combustion engines in vehicles.^[xiv] Since 1965, Congress has mandated increasingly stringent controls on vehicle engine technology and reductions in tailpipe emissions. Today, the constabulary requires EPA to establish and regularly update regulations for pollutants that may threaten public health, from a wide diverseness of classes of motor vehicles, that incorporate engineering to achieve the "greatest degree of emission reduction achievable", factoring in availability, price, free energy, and safety (42 U.Due south.C. § 7521).

On-road vehicles regulations [edit]

EPA sets standards for exhaust gases, evaporative emissions, air toxics, refueling vapor recovery, and vehicle inspection and maintenance for several classes of vehicles that travel on roadways. EPA's "light-duty vehicles" regulations encompass passenger cars, minivans, passenger vans, pickup trucks, and SUVs. "Heavy-duty vehicles" regulations cover large trucks and buses. EPA starting time issued motorcycle emissions regulations in 1977 (42 FR 1122) and updated them in 2004 (69 FR 2397).

Vehicle testing program

The air pollution testing system for motor vehicles was originally developed in 1972 and used driving cycles designed to simulate driving during rush-hour in Los Angeles during that era. Until 1984, EPA reported the exact fuel economy figures calculated from the test.^{[ citation needed ]} In 1984, EPA began adjusting city (aka Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule or UDDS) results downwards by ten% and highway (aka HighWay Fuel Economy Test or HWFET) results past 22% to compensate for changes in driving weather since 1972, and to better correlate the EPA test results with real-globe driving. In 1996, EPA proposed updating the Federal Testing Procedures^[15] to add together a new higher-speed exam (US06) and an air-conditioner-on test (SC03) to further ameliorate the correlation of fuel economy and emission estimates with real-globe reports. In Dec 2006 the updated testing methodology was finalized to exist implemented in model twelvemonth 2008 vehicles and set the precedent of a 12-year review cycle for the test procedures.^[16]

In February 2005, EPA launched a plan called "Your MPG" that allows drivers to add together real-world fuel economy statistics into a database on EPA's fuel economy website and compare them with others and with the original EPA test results.^[17]

EPA conducts fuel economy tests on very few vehicles.^[18] 2-thirds of the vehicles the EPA tests themselves are randomly selected and the remaining third is tested for specific reasons.

Although originally created equally a reference point for fossil-fueled vehicles, driving cycles have been used for estimating how many miles an electric vehicle volition go on a single charge.^[nineteen]

Non-road vehicles regulations [edit]

The 1970 CAA amendments provided for regulation of aircraft emissions (42 UsaC. § 7571), and EPA began regulating in 1973. In 2022, EPA finalized its newest restrictions on NOx emissions from gas turbine aircraft engines with rated thrusts above 26.7 kiloNewton (three short ton-force), meaning primarily commercial jet aircraft engines, intended to match international standards. EPA has been investigating whether to regulate lead in fuels for small aircraft since 2022, but has non yet acted. The 1990 CAA Amendments (Pub.L. 101–549 § 222) added rules for a "nonroad" engine program (42 UsC. § 7547), which expanded EPA regulation to locomotives, heavy equipment and small equipment engines fueled by diesel (compression-ignition), and gas and other fuels (spark-ignition), and marine send.

Voluntary programs [edit]

EPA has developed a variety of voluntary programs to incentivize and promote reduction in transportation-related air pollution, including elements of the Clean Diesel Campaign, Ports Initiative, SmartWay program, and others.

Fuel controls [edit]

EPA has regulated the chemic limerick of transportation fuels since 1967, with significant new potency added in 1970 to protect public health.^[20] One of EPA'southward earliest deportment was the elimination of lead in U.S. gasoline beginning in 1971 (36 FR 1486, 37 FR 3882, 38 FR 33734), a project that has been described every bit "one of the great public wellness achievements of the 20th century."^[21] EPA continues to regulate the chemical limerick of gasoline, avgas, and diesel fuel fuel in the U.s.a..

State implementation plans [edit]

The 1963 human activity required evolution of State Implementation Plans (SIPs) as part of a cooperative federalist plan for developing pollution control standards and programs.^[22] Rather than create a solely national program, the CAA imposes responsibilities on the U.S. states to create plans to implement the Act'southward requirements. EPA then reviews, apology, and approves those plans. EPA first promulgated SIP regulations in 1971 and 1972.^[23]

Non-attainment areas [edit]

The 1977 CAA Amendments added SIP requirements for areas that had not attained the applicable NAAQS ("nonattainment areas"). In these areas, states were required to adopt plans that made "reasonable further progress" toward attainment until all all "reasonably available control measures" could be adopted. As progress on attainment was much slower than Congress originally instructed, major amendments to SIP requirements in nonattainment areas were part of the 1990 CAA Amendments.^[24]

Prevention of significant deterioration [edit]

The 1977 CAA Amendments modified the SIP requirements by calculation "Prevention of Significant Deterioration" (PSD) requirements. These requirements protect areas, including particularly wilderness areas and national parks, that already met the NAAQS. The PSD provision requires SIPs to preserve good quality air in add-on to cleaning up bad air. The new law also required New Source Review (investigations of proposed construction of new polluting facilities) to examine whether PSD requirements would be met.^[25]

Stationary source operating permits [edit]

The 1990 amendments authorized a national operating let plan, sometimes chosen the "Title V Plan", covering thousands of large industrial and commercial sources. It required big businesses to address pollutants released into the air, measure their quantity, and take a programme to command and minimize them too as to periodically study. This consolidated requirements for a facility into a single document.^{[1] : nineteen} In non-attainment areas, permits were required for sources that emit as piddling as 50, 25, or 10 tons per year of VOCs depending on the severity of the region's non-attainment status.^[26] Most permits are issued by state and local agencies.^[27] If the state does non adequately monitor requirements, the EPA may accept control. The public may request to view the permits past contacting the EPA. The permit is limited to no more than five years and requires a renewal.^[26]

Monitoring and enforcement [edit]

One of the most public aspects of the Clean Air Act, EPA is empowered to monitor compliance with the law'southward many requirements, seek penalties for violations, and compel regulated entities to come up into compliance.^[28] Enforcement cases are commonly settled, with penalties assessed well beneath maximum statutory limits.^{[ citation needed ]} Recently, many of the largest Make clean Air Act settlements accept been reached with automakers defendant of circumventing the Act'southward vehicle and fuel standards (due east.g., the 2022 "Dieselgate" scandal).

Greenhouse gas regulation [edit]

Much of EPA's regulation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions occurs under the programs discussed above. EPA began regulating GHG emissions following the Supreme Court's ruling in Massachusetts 5. EPA, the EPA's subsequent endangerment finding, and development of specific regulations for various sources.^[29] Standards for mobile sources accept been established pursuant to Section 202 of the CAA, and GHGs from stationary sources are controlled under the authority of Part C of Championship I of the Act. The EPA's auto emission standards for greenhouse gas emissions issued in 2022 and 2022 are intended to cut emissions from targeted vehicles by half, double fuel economy of passenger cars and light-duty trucks by 2025 and save over $4 billion barrels of oil and $i.7 trillion for consumers. The agency has besides proposed a two-phase program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions for medium and heavy duty trucks and buses.^{[ needs update ] [30]} In add-on, EPA oversees the national greenhouse gas inventory reporting program.^[31]

Others [edit]

Other important merely less foundational Clean Air Act regulatory programs tend to build on or cut across the in a higher place programs:

• Risk Assessment. Although not a regulatory plan per se, many EPA regulatory programs involve take chances cess and management.^[32] Over the years, EPA has undertaken to unify and organize its many risk assessment processes. The 1990 CAA Amendments created a Commission on Hazard Assessment and Management tasked with making recommendations for a risk assessment framework,^[33] and many subsequent reports have built on this work.
• Visibility and Regional Haze. EPA monitors visibility and air clarity (haze) at 156 protected parks and wilderness areas, and requires states to develop plans to improve visibility by reducing pollutants that contribute to brume.^[34]
• Interstate pollution control. The Clean Air Act's "good neighbor" provision requires states to command emissions that will significantly contribute to NAAQS nonattainment or maintenance in a downwind state.^{[35] [36]} EPA has struggled to enact regulations that implement this requirement for many years. It adult the "Clean Air Interstate Rule" between 2003 and 2005, only this was overturned by the courts in 2008. EPA then adult the Cross-Land Air Pollution Rule between 2009 and 2022, and information technology continues to be litigated as EPA updates it.
• Startup, Shutdown, & Malfunction. EPA promulgates rules for states to address backlog emissions during periods of startup, shutdown, and malfunction, when facility emissions may temporarily be much higher than standard regulatory limits.^[37]

History [edit]

Between the Second Industrial Revolution and the 1960s, the United states experienced increasingly severe air pollution. Post-obit the 1948 Donora smog result, the public began to talk over air pollution as a major trouble, states began to pass a series of laws to reduce air pollution, and Congress began discussing whether to take further action in response. At the time, the master federal agencies interested in air pollution were the United States Bureau of Mines, which was interested in "smoke abatement" (reducing smoke from coal burning), and the U.s.a. Public Wellness Service, which handled industrial hygiene and was concerned with the causes of lung wellness problems.^[38]

After several years of proposals and hearings, Congress passed the first federal legislation to accost air pollution in 1955. The Air Pollution Command Human activity of 1955 authorized a research and grooming program, sending $iii million per twelvemonth to the U.S. Public Health Service for v years, but did not direct regulate pollution sources. The 1955 Act's research program was extended in 1959, 1960, and 1962 while Congress considered whether to regulate further.

Beginning in 1963, Congress began expanding federal air pollution command law to advance the emptying of air pollution throughout the country. The new law's programs were initially administered past the U.S. Secretary of Health, Educational activity, and Welfare, and the Air Pollution Office of the U.S. Public Health Service, until they were transferred to the newly-created EPA immediately before major amendments in 1970. EPA has administered the Make clean Air Act ever since, and Congress added major regulatory programs in 1977 and 1990.^[39] Well-nigh recently, the U.S. Supreme Courtroom's ruling in Massachusetts v. EPA resulted in an expansion of EPA'south CAA regulatory activities to cover greenhouse gases.

Clean Air Act of 1963 and Early Amendments. The Clean Air Deed of 1963 (Pub.L. 88–206) was the get-go federal legislation to permit the U.South. federal authorities to take directly action to control air pollution. Information technology extended the 1955 enquiry program, encouraged cooperative country, local, and federal action to reduce air pollution, appropriated $95 million over three years to support the development of state pollution control programs, and authorized the HEW Secretary to organize conferences and take direct activity against interstate air pollution where state action was deemed to be bereft.^[38]

The Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act (Pub.L. 89–272) amended the 1963 Clean Air Act and set the beginning federal vehicle emissions standards, offset with the 1968 models. These standards were reductions from 1963 emissions levels: 72% reduction for hydrocarbons, 56% reduction for carbon monoxide, and 100% reduction for crankcase hydrocarbons.^{[ citation needed ]}. The police likewise added a new section to authorize abatement of international air pollution.^[40]

The Air Quality Human action of 1967 (Pub.L. xc–148) authorized planning grants to state air pollution control agencies, permitted the creation of interstate air pollution control agencies, and required HEW to define air quality regions and develop technical documentation that would allow states to set ambient air quality and pollution control applied science standards, and required states to submit implementation plans for comeback of air quality, and permitted HEW to take direct abatement action in air pollution emergencies. It also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and command techniques.^{[41] [40]} This enabled the federal government to increment its activities to investigate enforcing interstate air pollution ship, and, for the first time, to perform far-reaching ambient monitoring studies and stationary source inspections. The 1967 act besides authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and control techniques.^[42] While only 6 states had air pollution programs in 1960, all 50 states had air pollution programs by 1970 due to the federal funding and legislation of the 1960s.^[30]

President Richard Nixon signs the Clean Air Amendments of 1970 at the White House, December 31, 1970.

1970 Amendments. In the Clean Air Amendments of 1970 (Pub.L. 91–604), Congress profoundly expanded the federal mandate by requiring comprehensive federal and country regulations for both industrial and mobile sources. The law established the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), New Source Operation Standards (NSPS); and National Emissions Standards for Chancy Air Pollutants (NESHAPs), and significantly strengthened federal enforcement authority, all toward achieving aggressive air pollution reduction goals.

To implement the strict amendments, EPA Ambassador William Ruckelshaus spent lx% of his time during his outset term on the automobile manufacture, whose emissions were to be reduced 90% nether the new constabulary. Senators had been frustrated at the manufacture's failure to cut emissions under previous, weaker air laws.^[43]

1977 Amendments. Major amendments were added to the Clean Air Act in 1977 (1977 CAAA) (91 Stat. 685, Pub.L. 95–95). The 1977 Amendments primarily concerned provisions for the Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) of air quality in areas attaining the NAAQS. The 1977 CAAA also contained requirements pertaining to sources in not-attainment areas for NAAQS. A non-attainment area is a geographic area that does not come across one or more than of the federal air quality standards. Both of these 1977 CAAA established major permit review requirements to ensure attainment and maintenance of the NAAQS.^[42] These amendments likewise included the adoption of an kickoff trading policy originally applied to Los Angeles in 1974 that enables new sources to offset their emissions by purchasing actress reductions from existing sources.^[xxx]

The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 required Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) of air quality for areas attaining the NAAQS and added requirements for non-attainment areas.^[44]

President George H. W. Bush signs the Clean Air Human activity Amendments of 1990 at the White House, Nov 15, 1990.

1990 Amendments. Another set of major amendments to the Clean Air Deed occurred in 1990 (1990 CAAA) (104 Stat. 2468, Pub.50. 101–549). The 1990 CAAA substantially increased the potency and responsibleness of the federal authorities. New regulatory programs were authorized for control of acid deposition (acrid pelting)^[45] and for the issuance of stationary source operating permits. The NESHAPs were incorporated into a greatly expanded plan for controlling toxic air pollutants. The provisions for attainment and maintenance of NAAQS were essentially modified and expanded. Other revisions included provisions regarding stratospheric ozone protection, increased enforcement authorization, and expanded inquiry programs.^[42]

The 1990 Make clean Air Act added regulatory programs for control of acrid deposition (acrid pelting) and stationary source operating permits. The provisions aimed at reducing sulfur dioxide emissions included a cap-and-trade program, which gave power companies more flexibility in coming together the law'due south goals compared to earlier iterations of the Clean Air Deed.^[46] The amendments moved considerably beyond the original criteria pollutants, expanding the NESHAP program with a list of 189 hazardous air pollutants to exist controlled inside hundreds of source categories, according to a specific schedule.^[1]{rp|16}} The NAAQS program was also expanded. Other new provisions covered stratospheric ozone protection, increased enforcement authority and expanded research programs.^[47]

Further amendments were made in 1990 to address the problems of acid rain, ozone depletion, and toxic air pollution, and to institute a national allow plan for stationary sources, and increased enforcement authority. The amendments also established new automobile gasoline reformulation requirements, ready Reid vapor pressure (RVP) standards to control evaporative emissions from gasoline, and mandated new gasoline formulations sold from May to September in many states. Reviewing his tenure every bit EPA Administrator nether President George H. Westward. Bush-league, William K. Reilly characterized passage of the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act as his almost notable achievement.^[48]

Federalism. Before 1970, there was only a very express national air pollution control plan, with nearly all enforcement say-so reserved to country and local governments, as had been the example traditionally nether U.S. federalism. The 1970 Make clean Air Act was a major evolution in this system, providing EPA with enforcement dominance and requiring states to develop State Implementation Plans for how they would meet new national ambient air quality standards by 1977.^[49] This cooperative federal model continues today. The law recognizes that states should pb in carrying out the Clean Air Act, because pollution command problems frequently require special understanding of local industries, geography, housing patterns, etc. All the same, states are not allowed to have weaker controls than the national minimum criteria set by EPA. EPA must approve each SIP, and if a SIP is not acceptable, EPA can retain CAA enforcement in that state. For instance, California was unable to run into the new standards set by the Make clean Air Amendments of 1970, which led to a lawsuit and a federal state implementation plan for the state.^[50] The federal government also assists u.s. by providing scientific inquiry, practiced studies, engineering designs, and money to back up clean air programs. The police force also prevents states from setting standards that are more strict than the federal standards, but carves out a special exemption for California due to its past issues with smog pollution in the metropolitan areas. In practice, when California's environmental agencies determine on new vehicle emission standards, they are submitted to the EPA for approval nether this waiver, with the well-nigh recent approval in 2009.^[51] The California standard was adopted by twelve other states, and established the de facto standard that automobile manufacturers subsequently accepted, to avoid having to develop different emission systems in their vehicles for different states. However, in September 2022, President Donald Trump attempted to revoke this waiver, arguing that the stricter emissions have fabricated cars as well expensive, and by removing them, will make vehicles safer. EPA's Andrew Wheeler also stated that while the agency respects federalism, they could not let one land to dictate standards for the unabridged nation. California'southward governor Gavin Newsom considered the move part of Trump's "political vendetta" against California and stated his intent to sue the federal regime.^[52] Xx-three states, along with the Commune of Columbia and the cities of New York City and Los Angeles, joined California in a federal lawsuit challenging the assistants'due south decision.^[53]

Effects [edit]

Graph showing decreases in US air pollution concentrations during 1990 to 2022

According to the most recent study by EPA, when compared to the baseline of the 1970 and 1977 regulatory programs, by 2022 the updates initiated by the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments would exist costing the United States well-nigh $threescore billion per yr, while benefiting the Usa (in monetized health and lives saved) about $ii trillion per year.^[54] In 2022, a study prepared for the Natural Resources Defense Quango estimated annual benefits at 370,000 avoided premature deaths, 189,000 fewer hospital admissions, and net economic benefits of upward to $3.8 trillion (32 times the cost of the regulations).^[55] Other studies have reached similar conclusions.^[56]

Mobile sources including automobiles, trains, and boat engines have become 99% cleaner for pollutants like hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particle emissions since the 1970s. The allowable emissions of volatile organic chemicals, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and lead from individual cars have also been reduced past more than xc%, resulting in decreased national emissions of these pollutants despite a more than 400% increment in total miles driven yearly.^[30] Since the 1980s, 1/4th of ground level ozone has been cut, mercury emissions take been cut by 80%, and since the change from leaded gas to unleaded gas 90% of atmospheric lead pollution has been reduced.^[57] A 2022 written report found that the Clean Air Act contributed to the threescore% decline in pollution emissions by the manufacturing industry between 1990 and 2008.^{[58] [59]}

Legal challenges [edit]

Since its inception, the authority given to the EPA by Congress and the EPA'southward rulemaking within the Clean Air Act has been subject to numerous lawsuits. Some of the major suits where the Clean Air Act has been focal indicate of litigation include the following:

Train 5. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 421 U.S. sixty (1975)

Nether the Clean Air Act, states were required to submit their implementation plans within nine months of the EPA's promulgation of the new standards. The EPA approved several country plans that allowed for variances in their emissions limitations, and the Natural Resources Defense force Council challenged that approval. The Supreme Courtroom held that the EPA'south approval was valid, and that every bit long as the "ultimate effect of a State's choice of emission limitations is compliance with the national standards for ambience air," a state is "at liberty to adopt whatever mix of emission limitations it deems best suited to its particular situation."^[sixty]

Chevron United statesA., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defence Council, Inc., 467 U.Southward. 837 (1984)

The Clean Air Act instructed the EPA to regulate emissions from sources of air pollution, simply did not define what should exist considered a source for the emission of air pollution, so the EPA had interpreted what a source was based on the legislation. The EPA'due south estimation was challenged, but after review, the Supreme Courtroom ruled in a 7–0 conclusion that the EPA had judicial deference to establish their ain interpretation of police when the law is ambiguous and the interpretation is reasonable and consistent. This principle has come to be known equally the Chevron deference applying to whatever executive agency granted powers from Congress.^[61]

Whitman v. American Trucking Donkey'ns, Inc., 531 U.South. 457 (2001)

Post-obit the EPA's rulemaking related to setting NAAQS standards related to diesel truck emissions, the trucking manufacture challenged the EPA'south rule in lower courts, asserting the EPA's rule failed to justify reasoning for these new levels and violated the nondelegation doctrine. The D.C. Circuit Court institute in favor of the trucking industry, determining that the EPA'southward rule did not consider the costs of implementing emissions regulations and controls. The Supreme Court reversed the D.C. District Courtroom'southward ruling, affirming that not simply was the delegation of power from Congress to the EPA by the Make clean Air Deed constitutional, merely that the law did not crave the EPA to consider costs as role of its determination for air quality controls.^[62]

Massachusetts v. Ecology Protection Bureau, 549 U.Southward. 497 (2007)

With pressure from states and environmental groups on the EPA to regulate carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions from motor vehicles, the EPA determined in 2003 that the language of the Clean Air Human action did not allow them to regulate emissions from motor vehicles, nor were they motivated to set such regulations even if they were able to. Multiple states and agencies sued the EPA for declining to human action on what they considered to be harmful air pollutants. The Supreme Court ruled 5–four that non but did the Clean Air Act mandate the EPA to regulate carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases as air pollutants, only that failing to regulate these emissions would leave the EPA liable to farther litigation.^[63] While the decision has remained contentious, the Court's determination in Massachusetts v. EPA was considered landmark, as it opened up the courts for further environmental lawsuits to force entities to answer to climate change.^[64]

American Electric Power Co. 5. Connecticut, 564 U.South. 410 (2011)

Several states and cities sued electric utility companies to force them to utilize a cap-and-merchandise arrangement to reduce their emissions nether a claim their emissions were a public nuisance. The Supreme Court ruled in an 8–0 decision that private companies cannot be sued by other parties for emissions-related issues, equally this is a power specifically delegated to the EPA through the Clean Air Act under federal mutual law.^[65]

Utility Air Regulatory Group v. Environmental Protection Agency, 573 U.S. 302 (2014)

The EPA issued new rules in 2022 that expanded emissions regulations for both regulated air pollutants and greenhouse gases to light and heavy engines and smaller stationary sources. These expanded rules were challenged by several ability companies and regulatory groups, every bit they profoundly expanded what types of facilities would need to larn ecology permits prior to construction. The Supreme Court by and large upheld the EPA'south powers through the Clean Air Act, through it vacated portions of the EPA's new rules affecting smaller sources.^[66]

Michigan 5. EPA, 576 U.S. 743 (2015)

In 2022, the EPA issued new rules that identified new pollutants such as mercury equally hazardous materials to be regulated in power plant emissions. The cost of implementing mercury pollution controls on new and existing plants can be expensive, and several states, companies, and other organizations sued the EPA that their analysis leading to these new rules did not consider the cost factor involved. The Supreme Courtroom ruled 5–iv that the EPA'southward failure to consider the costs of these pollution controls was inappropriate, and that price must exist a factor in any finding that the EPA finds "necessary and appropriate" nether the Clean Air Human activity.^[67]

West Virginia v. EPA, pending

Due to an oversight during reconciliation in 1990, 42 U.S.C. § 7411(d) includes both House and Senate language related to the EPA's potency to regulate carbon dioxide emissions from existing power plants, with the House version disallow it while the Senate version assuasive information technology. Every bit office of the Make clean Power Plan rules in 2022, the EPA relied on the Senate version of §7411(d) to implement new rules for existing sources to significantly cutting carbon dioxide emissions. The new rules were challenged in court, only due to the change from the Obama administration to the Trump assistants, the Clean Power Program was repealed by the EPA in favor of the Affordable Clean Energy dominion, seeking only a fraction of the emissions reductions from the Clean Power Plan. The Affordable Make clean Energy rule was challenged in courtroom and the D.C. District Court affirmed that the rule was arbitrary and arbitrary and failed to uphold the EPA's mandate to the Clean Air Act based on the Senate'south version of §7411(d). The Court's decision was brought to the Supreme Courtroom by multiple states and the coal industry, seeking to determine if the EPA properly interpreted the intent of §7411(d). The instance was certified, consolidating 4 petitions, and will exist heard during the 2022–22 term.^[68]

Future challenges [edit]

Every bit of 2022, some United states of america cities yet do non meet all national ambient air quality standards. Information technology is likely that tens of thousands of premature deaths are still beingness caused by fine-particle pollution and footing-level ozone pollution.^[30]

Climate change poses a challenge to the management of conventional air pollutants in the United States due to warmer, dryer summer conditions that can lead to increased air stagnation episodes. Prolonged droughts that may contribute to wildfires would also result in regionally high levels of air particles.^[69]

Transboundary air pollution (both entering and exiting the The states) is non straight regulated past the Clean Air Human action, requiring international negotiations and ongoing agreements with other nations, peculiarly Canada and Mexico.^[seventy]

Ecology justice continues to be an ongoing challenge for the Clean Air Act. By promoting pollution reduction, the Make clean Air Act helps reduce heightened exposure to air pollution among communities of color and depression-income communities.^[71] Simply African American populations are "consistently over represented" in areas with the poorest air quality.^[72] Dense populations of low-income and minority communities inhabit the virtually polluted areas across the United States, which is considered to exacerbate health problems among these populations.^[73] High levels of exposure to air pollution is linked to several health weather, including asthma, cancer, premature death, and infant mortality, each of which disproportionately impact communities of color and depression-income communities.^[74] The pollution reduction achieved by the Clean Air Act is associated with a turn down in each of these conditions and can promote environmental justice for communities that are unduly impacted by air pollution and diminished health condition.^[74]

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c} "The Patently English Guide to the Clean Air Human action" (PDF). Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Bureau (EPA). April 2007. p. 19. EPA 456/K-07-001.
2. ^ "Clean Air Human action Text". EPA. March 24, 2022.
3. ^ 40 C.F.R. "Subchapter C (Air Programs)".
4. ^ NAAQS Program:
   • First enacted: 1970 CAA amendments, Pub.Fifty. 91–604 § 4.
   • Location in statute: CAA § 109, 42 U.S.C. § 7409.
   • Major regulations: forty CFR 50.
   • EPA pages: "Criteria Air Pollutants". April ix, 2022. "NAAQS". September 9, 2022.
5. ^ See "EPA Clean Air Scientific Informational Commission".
6. ^ NESHAPS Program:
   • First enacted: 1970 CAA amendments, Pub.Fifty. 91–604 § four.
   • Location in statute: CAA § 112, 42 UsC. § 7412.
   • Major regulations: 40 CFR 61, 40 CFR 63.
   • EPA pages: "Hazardous Air Pollutants". December two, 2022. "EPA HAPs List". December sixteen, 2022. "EPA NESHAP Source Categories". May 6, 2022.
7. ^ "HAPs Mobile Source Rule". EPA. August iii, 2022.
8. ^ "NESHAPs Risk and Technology Review". EPA. Dec 15, 2022.
9. ^ NSPS Program:
   • First enacted: 1970 CAA amendments, Pub.50. 91–604 § 4.
   • Location in statute: CAA § 111, 42 U.S.C. § 7411.
   • Major regulations: xl CFR 60.
   • EPA pages: "NSPS Regulations". November 25, 2022.
10. ^ "NSR Regulatory Actions". EPA. December 9, 2022.
11. ^ Acid Rain Program:
    • First enacted: 1990 CAA amendments, Pub.L. 101–549 § 401.
    • Location in statute: CAA Title 4-A, 42 U.S.C. ch. 85, subch. IV-A.
    • Major regulations: xl CFR 72 through 40 CFR 78.
    • EPA pages: "Clean Air Markets". August 12, 2022. "Acid Pelting Plan". August 21, 2022. "Acrid Rain". December ii, 2022.
12. ^ "ARP Progress Reports". EPA.
13. ^ Ozone Layer Protection Program:
    • First enacted: 1990 CAA amendments, Pub.50. 101–549 § 601.
    • Location in statute: CAA Title Six, 42 U.S.C. ch. 85, subch. VI.
    • Major regulations: twoscore CFR 72 through 40 CFR 82.
    • EPA pages: "Ozone Layer Protection". February xv, 2022. "Ozone Layer Protection under the CAA". July 14, 2022.
14. ^ Mobile Source Programs
    • First enacted: Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Deed of 1965, Pub.L. 89–272 § 101.
    • Location in statute: CAA Title II, 42 U.S.C. ch. 85, subch. II.
    • Major regulations: 40 CFR 85, 40 CFR 86, 40 CFR 87, xl CFR 89, xl CFR 1039, forty CFR 1048, forty CFR 1054), 40 CFR 1051), 40 CFR 1068.
    • EPA pages: "Regulations for Emissions from Vehicles and Engines". Apr 15, 2022. "Regulations for Onroad Vehicles and Engines". August 10, 2022. "Regulations for Smog, Soot, and Other Air Pollution from Passenger Cars & Trucks". September 9, 2022. "Regulations for Smog, Soot, and Other Air Pollution from Commercial Trucks & Buses". September 12, 2022. "Regulations for Smog, Soot, and Other Air Pollution from Not-Electric Motorcycles". September 22, 2022. "Regulations for Nitrogen Oxide Emissions from Aircraft". September 28, 2022. "Regulations for Lead Emissions from Shipping". September 9, 2022. "Regulations for Emissions from Locomotives". September 13, 2022. "Voluntary Programs to Reduce Mobile Source Pollution". June 16, 2022.
15. ^ "Federal Examination Procedure Revisions". EPA. October 22, 1996. Archived from the original on September 14, 2009. Retrieved October iii, 2009.
16. ^ "Regulatory Proclamation: EPA Bug New Test Methods for Fuel Economic system Window Stickers". EPA. December 2006. EPA 420-F-06-069. Fact sail. Archived from the original on September vii, 2008. Retrieved July sixteen, 2022.
17. ^ "Welcome to Your MPG!". U.s.a. Department of Free energy and EPA. Archived from the original on September 13, 2022. Retrieved October 21, 2022.
18. ^ Dave Vanderwerp (August 2009). "The Truth About EPA City / Highway MPG Estimates". Automobile and Driver. Archived from the original on Baronial 21, 2022. Retrieved Baronial 19, 2022. Just 18 of the EPA's 17,000 employees work in the auto-testing section in Ann Arbor, Michigan, examining 200 to 250 vehicles a year, or roughly 15 percent of new models. As to that other 85 pct, the EPA takes automakers at their word—without whatsoever testing-accepting submitted results as accurate.
19. ^ Chuck Squatriglia (November 17, 2022). "Honda Finds EVs a Perfect Fit | Autopia". Wired. Archived from the original on March 7, 2022. Retrieved March 12, 2022.
20. ^ Fuel Controls Programs:
    • First enacted: Air Quality Act of 1967, Pub.L. xc–148 § 210.
    • Location in statute: CAA § 211, 42 UsC. § 7545.
    • Major regulations: forty CFR 1090.
    • EPA pages: "Final Rulemaking: Streamlining and Consolidating of Existing Gasoline and Diesel fuel Programs". October 7, 2022. "Gasoline Standards". April viii, 2022. "Diesel fuel Fuel Standards". April 8, 2022. "Renewable Fuel Standard Plan". Apr viii, 2022.
21. ^ Bridbord, Kenneth; Hanson, David (August 2009). "A Personal Perspective on the Initial Federal Health-Based Regulation to Remove Lead from Gasoline". Environmental Health Perspectives. 117 (eight): 1195–1201. doi:10.1289/ehp.0800534. PMC2721861. PMID 19672397.
22. ^ forty CFR 51, 40 CFR 52
23. ^ 36 FR 15486, 37 FR 19807)
24. ^ Garrett & Winner. "Chapter iv. Nonattainment". ELR.
25. ^ Department 127, calculation CAA Championship I Role C, codified at 42 The statesC. ch. 85, subch. I. 40 CFR 52.21
26. ^ ^{a b} McCarthy, James (February 25, 2022). "Clean Air Act: A Summary of the Deed and its Major Requirements". Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. RL30853.
27. ^ EPA (February 1998). "Air Pollution Operating Permit Program Update: Fundamental Features and Benefits." Document no. EPA/451/K-98/002. p. 1.
28. ^ Monitoring and Enforcement EPA pages: "CAA Compliance Monitoring". EPA. July 17, 2022. , "Air Enforcement". May iii, 2022. , "Air Enforcement Policy, Guidance and Publications". May 3, 2022. , "Enforcement Data and Results". May 3, 2022.
29. ^ "Fact Canvass: Clean Air Human activity Permitting for Greenhouse Gas Emissions–Final Rules" (PDF). EPA. December 23, 2022.
30. ^ ^{a b c d e} John Bachmann, David Calkins, Margo Oge. "Cleaning the Air Nosotros Breathe: A One-half Century of Progress." EPA Alumni Association. September 2022.
31. ^ "Greenhouse Gas Reporting Programme". EPA. October 22, 2022.
32. ^ "Hazard Assessment". EPA. August 24, 2022.
    "History of Risk at EPA". Take a chance Assessment. EPA. August 24, 2022.
33. ^ Pub.L. 101–549 § 303. Non codification.
34. ^ Regional Brume Program:
    • Beginning enacted: 1977 Amendments, Pub.50. 95–95 § 128, 1990 Amendments, Pub.L. 101–549 § 816.
    • Location in statute: 42 U.Southward.C. § 7491, 42 The statesC. § 7492.
    • Major regulations: forty CFR 51, Subpart P.
    • EPA Pages: "Visibility and Regional Haze". May four, 2022. .
35. ^ • "Interstate Air Pollution Send". EPA. February 23, 2022.
    • Shouse, Kate C. (Baronial 30, 2022). "The Clean Air Act's Good Neighbour Provision: Overview of Interstate Air Pollution Control" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. R45299.
    • "Clean Air Interstate Rule (Archive)". EPA. Feb 21, 2022.
36. ^ 42 U.S.C. § 7410(a)(2)(D)(i)(I)/
37. ^ "Emissions During Periods of Startup, Shutdown, & Malfunction (SSM)". Air Quality Implementation Plans. EPA. September xxx, 2022. Guidance Memorandum: Withdrawal of the October 9, 2022, Memorandum. EPA is returning to its 2022 policy explaining that State Implementation Programme provisions that provide exemptions from air emissions limits during periods of startup, shutdown and malfunction (SSM) or that provide affirmative defense provisions are not consistent with the Clean Air Human activity and would not generally exist approvable.
38. ^ ^{a b} Orford, Adam (2021). "The Clean Air Act of 1963: Postwar Environmental Politics and the Debate Over Federal Power". Hastings Ecology Law Periodical. 27 (2): 1–77. ISSN 1080-0735. Retrieved Apr 26, 2022.
39. ^ Bailey, Christopher J. (1998). Congress and Air Pollution. Manchester Academy Press.
40. ^ ^{a b} Stern, Arthur C. (1982). "History of Air Pollution Legislation in the United States". Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association. 32 (one): 44–61. doi:x.1080/00022470.1982.10465369. PMID 7033323.
41. ^ "The Air Quality Act of 1967". Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association. 18:2 (2): 62–71. 1968. doi:x.1080/00022470.1968.10469096. PMID 5637413.
42. ^ ^{a b c}  This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document: "History of the Clean Air Act, U.S. Environmental Protection Bureau"."History of the Clean Air Human activity". Environmental Protection Bureau. August eight, 2022. Retrieved August 23, 2022.
43. ^ EPA Alumni Association: William Ruckelshaus in a 2022 interview discusses his first-term efforts at implementing the Clean Air Act of 1970, Video, Transcript (encounter p14).
44. ^ Clean Air Human activity Amendments of 1977, P.50. 95-95, 91 Stat. 685, August 7, 1977.
45. ^ Quondam Deputy Ambassador Hank Habicht talks about management at EPA. An Interview with Hank Habicht Video, Transcript (see p6). December 21, 2022.
46. ^ Turner, James Morton; Isenberg, Andrew C. (2018). The Republican Reversal: Conservatives and the Surroundings from Nixon to Trump. Harvard University Press. pp. 119–120. ISBN978-0674979970.
47. ^ Clean Air Human action Amendments of 1990, P.50. 101-549, 104 Stat. 2399, November 15, 1990.
48. ^ EPA Alumni Clan: EPA Administrator William K. Reilly describes why passage of the 1990 Clean Air Act amendments was vitally important. Reflections on United states Ecology Policy: An Interview with William K. Reilly Video, Transcript (see p10).
49. ^ "Early Implementation of the Make clean Air Human action of 1970 in California." EPA Alumni Association. Video, Transcript (run into p. half dozen). July 12, 2022.
50. ^ "Early Implementation of the Clean Air Human action of 1970 in California." EPA Alumni Association. Video, Transcript. July 12, 2022.
51. ^ "Shifting Gears: The Federal Regime's Reversal on California's Clean Air Human action Waiver" (PDF). American Constitution Society. Feb 11, 2022. Archived from the original on Feb 23, 2022. Retrieved September 19, 2022.
52. ^ Liptak, Kevin (September 18, 2022). "Trump revokes waiver for California to set higher car emissions standards". CNN. Retrieved September 18, 2022.
53. ^ Davenport, Carol (September 20, 2022). "California Sues the Trump Administration in Its Escalating War Over Car Emissions". The New York Times . Retrieved September twenty, 2022.
54. ^ EPA (2011)."The Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act from 1990 to 2022. Final Report." archived (also known as the "2d Prospective Study." archived)
55. ^ Mui, Simon; Levin, Amanda (May five, 2022). "Clearing the Air: The Benefits of the Clean Air Act". New York, NY: Natural Resources Defense force Council.
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57. ^ "The Clean Air Act". Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists. February 1, 2022.
58. ^ "Ecology regulations drove steep declines in U.South. factory pollution". Berkeley News. August nine, 2022. Retrieved August 11, 2022.
59. ^ Shapiro, Joseph Southward.; Walker, Reed (2018). "Why is Pollution from U.S. Manufacturing Declining? The Roles of Environmental Regulation, Productivity, and Trade". American Economic Review. 108 (12): 3814–3854. doi:x.1257/aer.20151272. ISSN 0002-8282.
60. ^ "The Of import, Yet Express, Role of State Ecology Actions". Westlaw . Retrieved November 11, 2022.
61. ^ Brannon, Valerie C.; Cole, Jared P. (September 19, 2022). Chevron Deference: A Primer (PDF). Congressional Inquiry Service. R44954.
62. ^ Bressman, Lisa Schultz (2002). "Disciplining Delegation Subsequently Whitman v. American Trucking Assns". Cornell Law Review. 87 (52): 452–485.
63. ^ Greenhouse, Linda (Apr 3, 2007). "Justices Say Due east.P.A. Has Power to Act on Harmful Gases". The New York Times . Retrieved November ane, 2022.
64. ^ Kovacs, William (April two, 2022). "Massachusetts 5. EPA: After 13 years, it'south fourth dimension for climate policy review". The Hill . Retrieved November 1, 2022.
65. ^ Brody, David R. (2012). "American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut" (PDF). Harvard Ecology Police Review. 36: 297–304.
66. ^ "Supreme Court Ruling Backs Near EPA Emission Controls". The Wall Street Journal. June 23, 2022. Retrieved July 1, 2022.
67. ^ Liptak, Adam (June 29, 2022). "Supreme Court Blocks Obama'southward Limits on Power Plants". The New York Times.
68. ^ Liptak, Adam (Oct 29, 2022). "Supreme Court to Hear Case on Eastward.P.A.'s Power to Limit Carbon Emissions". The New York Times.
69. ^ John Bachmann, David Calkins, Margo Oge. "Cleaning the Air We Exhale: A Half Century of Progress." EPA Alumni Clan. September 2022. pp. 32–33.
70. ^ "Transboundary Air Pollution". EPA. March 27, 2022.
71. ^ "Air Pollution: Current and Future Challenges". EPA. September 23, 2022.
72. ^ Miranda, Marie Lynn; Edwards, Sharon East.; Keating, Martha H.; Paul, Christopher J. (April xviii, 2022). "Making the Environmental Justice Form: The Relative Burden of Air Pollution Exposure in the United states". International Journal of Environmental Inquiry and Public Health. 8 (half-dozen): 1755–1771. doi:ten.3390/ijerph8061755. ISSN 1661-7827. PMC3137995. PMID 21776200.
73. ^ Massey, Rachel (2004). "Environmental Justice: Income, Race, and Health" (PDF). Tufts University Global Development And Environment Institute.
74. ^ ^{a b} EPA (2002). "Advancing Ecology Justice Through Pollution Prevention" (PDF). Study developed from the National Environmental Justice Informational Council Coming together of December 9–13, 2002.

External links [edit]

• EPA Enforcement and Compliance History Online
• EPA Alumni Association Oral History Video "Early on Implementation of the Clean Air Act of 1970 in California"

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)

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